Arbitrage: Efficient Reasoning via Advantage-Aware Speculation

Modern Large Language Models achieve impressive reasoning capabilities with long Chain of Thoughts, but they incur substantial computational cost during inference, and this motivates techniques to improve the performance-cost ratio. Among these techniques, Speculative Decoding accelerates inference by employing a fast but inaccurate draft model to auto-regressively propose tokens, which are then verified in parallel by a more capable target model. However, due to unnecessary rejections caused by token mismatches in semantically equivalent steps, traditional token-level Speculative Decoding struggles in reasoning tasks. Although recent works have shifted to step-level semantic verification, which improve efficiency by accepting or rejecting entire reasoning steps, existing step-level methods still regenerate many rejected steps with little improvement, wasting valuable target compute. To address this challenge, we propose ARBITRAGE, a novel step-level speculative generation framework that routes generation dynamically based on the relative advantage between draft and target models. Instead of applying a fixed acceptance threshold, ARBITRAGE uses a lightweight router trained to predict when the target model is likely to produce a meaningfully better step. This routing approximates an ideal ARBITRAGE ORACLE that always chooses the higher-quality step, achieving near-optimal efficiency–accuracy trade-offs. Across multiple mathematical reasoning benchmarks, ARBITRAGE consistently surpasses prior step-level SD baselines, reducing inference latency by up to ∼ 2× at matched accuracy.

• † UC Berkeley
• ‡ ICSI
• § LBNL
• * Equal contribution